Cognitive Processing and RTI

There seem to be a lot of talk these days about Cognitive Processing and Executive Function and the role they play in identifying a student with a Learning Disability but not a lot of clear understanding of either.  While becoming a psychologist is one way to truly gain a better understanding it may not be the best (or most appropriate) option for most of us.  But when looking at pairing sound research based interventions for students within RtI, it is helpful to know how the observable behaviors we see align to the possible processing deficit area, especially if that student appears to be on the road to special ed evaluation.

A major problem identified repeatedly in recent consensus reports is that students are identified and placed in special education under the LD category when core instructional programs are not adequate for many children (Donovan & Cross, 2002). Instructional response can only be reliably measured by assessing growth in academic skills in relation to instruction, which includes assessments of the quality of the instruction (Stecker, Fuchs, & Fuchs, 2005). Thus, inadequate response to quality instruction can be used to identify individuals for whom instruction is adequate, but who are hard to teach (Fuchs & Fuchs, 1998; Vaughn & Fuchs, 2003).  Enter Response to Intervention. 

Taking the research to a practical level for teacher requires professional development and a shift in paradigm for many teachers.  The idea that the problem may lie in the lack of a differentiated instructional approach means that we, as teachers, need to recognize both the observable behavior and the possible underlying cognitive deficit and then adjust our teaching interventions to address those needs.

While this is an enormous undertaking, we are beginning to make the shift.  An alignment of those observable academic behaviors and the cognitive processing deficits they may represent is a place to start.  (click here for a chart that aligns Basic Reading Skills/Reading Comprehension to possible cognitive processing deficits)

Resources:

Donovan, M. S., & Cross, C. T. (2002). Minority students in special and gifted education. National Research Council. Committee on Minority Representation in Special Education. Division of Behavioral and Social Sciences and Education. Washington, DC: National Academies Press.

Stecker, P. M., Fuchs, L. S., & Fuchs, D. (2005). Using curriculum-based measurement to improve student achievement: Review of research. Psychology in the Schools, 42(8), 795–819.

Fuchs, L. S., & Fuchs, D. (1998). Treatment validity: A unifying concept for reconceptualizing the identification of learning disabilities. Learning Disabilities Research & Practice, 13, 204–219.

Vaughn, S., & Fuchs, L. S. (2003). Redefining learning disabilities as inadequate response to instruction: The promise and potential problems. Learning Disabilities Research & Practice, 18(3), 137–146.

Kathy Steffens is a Special Educator with 20+ years experience.  She is available for questions regarding district RTI implementation and staff development training.  You can reach her at RightResponsetoRTI@gmail.com

RtI and Early Childhood Education - How Do They Fit Together?

RtI and Early Childhood Education - How Do They Fit Together?

Lots of hype, but does it make sense?

With all the attention that Response to Intervention has bought about in educational circles, it is small wonder that it has found its way into the Early Childhood Education setting, but exactly how do the two fit together?

Much attention has been given to that question and I recently read a great article about it that was jointly authored by the Division for Early Childhood (DEC), the National Association for Education of Young Children (NAECY) and the National Head Start Association (NHSA).  The article provides guidance on how to conceptualize RtI within early childhood and defines the context in which it should be considered.

A recent paper suggest the following features be considered in the framework for RtI in Early Childhood Education:

• A multi-tiered aspect - where high-quality instruction is delivered across tiers to support the diverse learning needs and levels of support needed for the young children served in Early Childhood programs.
• Use of high-quality curriculum for all children.  Curriculum for young children is defined primarily as one that is developmentally appropriate, guided by team/family decisions and uses research-based instructional strategies.
• A systematic way to screen, assess, and monitor progress based upon outcomes.
• Opportunity for collaborative problem-solving to help guide decisions about what an individual child need to support learning and development.

The paper goes on to discuss some of the most common misunderstandings and misconceptions with regards to RtI and Early Childhood Education.  It is definitely worth a read.  (Click here to read the complete article regarding misconceptions on RtI and ECSE)

View an interview with Dr. Barbara Willer

Another interesting resource that was recently shared is a new video interview with Dr. Barbara Willer, Deputy Executive Director of the National Association for the Education of Young Children. In the interview, Dr. Willer discusses how early childhood education is changing, the benefits of incorporating technology into early childhood lesson plans, and what to expect from the future of this field.  (click here to view Dr. Willer's video interview)

Kathy Steffens is a Special Educator with 20+ years experience.  She is available for questions regarding district RTI implementation and staff development training.  You can reach her at RightResponsetoRTI@gmail.com

Strategies for Modifying Troublesome Activities

Here is a handy little chart that helps with some thoughts about interventions for some of the more common behaviors we see with our students.

                                              

Beginning and Completing Tasks
Problems in this area may be related to: Auditory Processing – difficulty understanding and interpreting the spoken word Motor Planning – difficulties with the ability to plan, organize and sequence strategies	Have you tried . . . ·      Giving one direction at a time? Sometimes if a child is given a three step direction, he will act on only the last direction ·      Using short, simple, one-concept phrases to drive directions? Do not elaborate. Repeat verbal directions slowly, firmly and clearly ·      Waiting? Wait a little longer than you think is necessary to give the child time to analyze the command and put it into action ·      Giving a visual demonstration or physical assistance? ·      Reducing auditory distractions? Be aware of background, white noise (papers shuffling, pencils dropping, etc) and reduce it if possible ·      Practicing verbal direction following using gross motor games? Progress from one to four step directions ·      Insisting that the student does not move until you have finished giving all the directions? Often students hear a direction and begin to follow it without waiting to hear the next steps.  Have the student repeat the direction to you ·      Helping the student identify the steps need to begin? Have the student repeat directions and, if possible, write down the steps ·      Giving a shorter assignment to promote the feeling of success in completion? Document the length of time a student can focus on one task and then structure the assignment so that it can be completed in that length of time ·      A system for checking off steps as they are accomplished? ·      Giving one direction at a time? After one direction is successfully completed, add another ·      Helping the student physically move through the task? ·      Minimizing visual distractions? Check for and get rid of clutter in the classroom environment ·      Playing Simon Says or other games that require imitation to see if the student is able to process directions and copy?
Copying
Problems in this area may be related to: Ocular Control – weak eye muscles can make eyes tire easily when required to repeatedly shift focus from one thing to another	Have you tried . . . ·      Writing small amount to be copied at a time? ·      Alternating those activities with less visually demanding tasks? ·      Scheduling a break to close and relax eyes between tasks? ·      Eye tracking activities?
Visual-Spatial Perception – unidentified acuity problems or difficulty transferring visual-spatial information across two visual planes	·      Checking with parents or school nurse to see if there is an acuity problem? ·      Using a different color to write in or a bolder marker? ·      Copying from one paper to another – in the same plane? Providing the student with an outline of material to be covered? Until the student is independent in copying, try having portions of the material already on his paper.
Cutting with Scissors
Problems in this area may be related to: Coordinating Body Sides Fine Motor Control – hand and finger control	Have you tried . . . ·      Providing opportunities for the right and left arms and hands to work together? Try clapping and hand games, legos, tinker toys, stringing beads, sewing cards, mixing bowl activities (one hand stabilizes and the other mixes) ·      Hand grasp strengthening activities? For example, holding on to the ropes of swings, playing tug of war, using a hole punch, spraying with the trigger type spray bottle can help strengthen grasp. ·      Cutting without demand for precision? Try cutting pieces of straws, grass, strips of paper, etc, to practice the grasp and feel of scissors ·      Consulting a resource for appropriate developmental expectations and pre-requisite skills?
Organizing Personal Belongings
Problems in this area may be related to: Body Awareness – inaccurate awareness of where, how, and with what force body parts are moving in relations to objects Visual-Spatial Perception – difficulty with figure-ground perception can contribute to a problem with sorting and organizing personal belongings	Have you tried . . . ·      Stabilizing school supplies b weighting the student’s pencil box and other containers?  ·      Triangular finger grips on pencils and crayons to prevent them from rolling off the desk? ·      A clipboard and/or large clips to keep papers together? ·      Keeping only necessary item on desktop? ·      Allowing limited number of personal belongings at school? ·      Designating a place or container for each belonging? ·      Scheduling a set time each day to organize belonging? ·      A color-coded filing system? Folded construction paper/folders of different colors can signify different subjects or completed/incomplete tasks. ·      Discussing strategies for organizing personal belongings? Ideas – sort by same or different characteristics, items that are used daily, etc.
Performing Tasks While Seated
Problems in this area may be related to: Body Awareness – deficient strength and muscle tone in muscles may make it tiring to sit erect for long periods	Have you tried . . . ·      Placing a heavy beanbag on the lap? ·      Providing a brief time for movement? Jumping, running in place, etc may be the input the student needs to stay in his seat for longer periods of time
Problems in this area may be related to: Perception of touch - A hypersensitivity to touch may make it difficult for some children to stay in their seat because they are trying to avoid inadvertent touch be the student next to them	Have you tried . . . ·      Spacing students so that they are not sitting near enough to touch one another? ·      Allow the student to wear his favorite sweater or jacket when he is in situations where he will be near other children? ·      Markers to help designate personal space?
Producing Organized Written Work
Problems in this area may be related to: Visual-Spatial Perception – inaccurate perception of the relationship of one’s body to external space can contribute to a disorganized approach to a task	Have you tried . . . ·      Using graph paper for math? ·      Emphasizing spatial terms? ·      A shield or cover to eliminate visual distractions? Cut a hole in a piece of card stock the average size of a word or sentence.  This can be placed over the paper the student is working on and moved when appropriate ·      A Popsicle stick, tongue depressor, or strip of paper to mark a space between words? ·      Pre-marked paper? Try pre-marking paper, indicating space appropriate for name, date, and subject, etc.
Cooperation and Sportsmanship
Problems in this area may be related to: Peer Interactions – poor peer interactions may interfere with ability to cooperate	Have you tried . . . ·      A review of classroom rules?  For example, “Do we have a rule about . . .?” ·      Positive reinforcement techniques? Give immediate honest and positive comments on each small efforts or appropriate social interactions or approximation ·      Ignoring disruptive behavior while complimenting desired behavior?

Kathy Steffens is a Special Educator with 20+ years experience.  She is available for questions regarding district RTI implementation and staff development training.  You can reach her at RightResponsetoRTI@gmail.com

5 Easy Strategies to Consider for Task Completion

Do you ever find yourself struggling to get a student to just do what you have asked?

Have you ever asked yourself what else can I do to get my student to complete work?

Here are a few questions to ask yourself when one of your students is having a difficult time with an activity that might get you thinking differently about instruction.

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Weigh the value of the activity

 

Is this something that the child really needs to master or can he get through his school years without this skill?  Often we spend an inordinate amount of time focusing on the task rather than the instructional objective behind it.

Practice the activity 

To ensure that the skill is learned we need to see transfer.  Too often a student is able to do something we request in one setting but not another.  Try practicing direction following, listening, independent planning, sequencing, task persistence and task completion through a variety of media (such as art projects, musical games or motor activities).

Developmental appropriateness 

Does what you are asking the student to do follow developmental progression? Does the student have the pre-requisite skills needed to perform the task?  You may need to consult with your favorite developmental schedule or evaluation tool to get ideas for adjusting the level of skill expected.

Break it down 

When task completion is an issue for the student it may be due to the student's perception of the overwhelmingness of the task.  Try to break the task into parts and emphasize the completion of each part.  Document success for the student in completing each part.  Adjust the task so that the child can finish in a set amount of time.  This will develop a sense of accomplishment and confidence in completing tasks.  It is more satisfying to complete several small tasks than to continuously struggle and never complete one long task.  

Tell them why 

Often, when we instruct, we neglect to let the student know what the reason for the task is.  Identify the importance of the end product by explaining to the student the instructional objective behind doing it.  Tell them what the learning target is.  Sometimes the process in completing the task is more important, sometimes the end product is, be sure to share the reason with your student. This will help to build motivation, understanding and maybe, persistence to complete the task assigned.


Kathy Steffens is a Special Educator with 20+ years experience.  She is available for questions regarding district RTI implementation and staff development training.  You can reach her at RightResponsetoRTI@gmail.com

3 Key Ideas to Help Your Students Apply Intervention Strategies

How Can I Help My Student Apply Strategies to their Work? 

A speech pathologist shares 3 key ideas that can help you teach students to use  skills learned during the intervention process. 

"What we want is to see the child in pursuit of knowledge, and not knowledge in pursuit of the child." - George Bernard Shaw

Teachers struggle on a daily basis in the classroom with students who simply do not apply what they've been taught, in spite of a teacher's best efforts.  And, unfortunately, all of the drill and practice in the world sometimes does not accomplish the objective of a student applying what they've learned.

Here are 3 key ideas that have helped me achieve instructional carryover with students on my caseload. Feel free to apply these same concepts in your classroom.

#1:  Teach Students to Self-Monitor Their Own Performance

Self-Monitoring - A Big Word, An Even Bigger Impact
 

Simply speaking, self-monitoring is the ability for a student to determine whether or not they were able to create the target behavior, by observing themselves during their own performance of a task.  

What I've Learned in the Speech Room

Many students become dependent on the speech therapist for feedback during therapy. When asked whether a sound was produced accurately, students aren't sure.  They weren't "listening" to themselves, because they were caught up in the performance, the "doing".  The student has become dependent on an external barometer. 

Give the student a checklist, and ask them to check their own work, or otherwise rate their own performance.   As a teacher, the value of self-awareness cannot be over-estimated.  (Hint:  printed cues for the desired strategy or response can be critical to internalizing a new set of rules when teaching self-monitoring).

#2:  Focus on Teaching a Strategy in a Controlled Context

Exercise in Futility 

I recall observing a language-disordered 3rd grade student participate in an ILA classroom exercise. The activity required the student to respond to a number of errors in a written paragraph, including multiple mechanics, grammar, and spelling errors.  Unfortunately, the student was not able succeed at that exercise, because so many types of errors were introduced simultaneously. 

Use a mixed practice format to challenge students who've already mastered the rules and can benefit from mixed practice.  Control the context and present single rules at a time for students who have not mastered grade level content.

#3:  Accurate Practice Requires Specific Instruction

Learning How to Teach

I once supervised a graduate student who didn't understand the mechanics of speech production.  In one lesson, she instructed a 4th grade student to "say 'r' like a Pirate",  and followed with an enthusiatic pirate impersonation.   The student continued to produce the sound with the same errors.  If the student isn't successful at least 60% of the time, the instruction needs to be modified. 

Use scaffolding, reverse chaining, thoughtful prompts and cues, and direct instruction to share the process of discovery with the student.   Level practice exercises in the 60-80% success range.

#4:  Provide Opportunities for Distraction...or Less is More

Once a student has achieved a level of mastery within a controlled context, distraction provides a needed challenge within the context of less definition and structure - this is an often overlooked step in the process of teaching students how to independently apply a learned skill.

Drill Practice ad Infinitum

Consider this case:  a secondary student who doesn't generalize grammar skills to conversation, in spite of years of remedial instruction. The next step simply requires that we expand the student's use of the grammar rules to broad, less defined tasks.

Try the following strategies: 

• story retelling
• narrative format
• mixed rule practice
• self-monitoring using a student grading rubric
• printed cues
• tape recording with playback
• multiple practice trials

Cynthia Scott, M.A. CCC-SLP is a Speech Language Pathologist and educator in the central Minnesota area.  She can be reached at PhoneticResoucesLLC@gmail.com, or view her blog at ThePhoneticResource.blogspot.com  for other helpful resources.

 

From Differentiation to Intervention

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Differentiated Instruction is consistently and proactively creating different pathways to help all students be successful

 (Betty Hollis, 2007)

On the road to RtI we begin with the core curriculum and differentiated instruction for students that teachers feel have not yet learned certain skills.  Many teachers mistakenly believe that differentiated instruction means they need to provide different instruction, different assessments, different grading, and different assignments.  While this can be true, most teachers who do differentiated instruction well actual use the same instructional methodologies, the same assessment, the same grading system and many of the same assignments for all their students.  What differs is not the tools used but rather the emphasis that is placed on the different instructional components of the lesson. 

Differentiated instruction often involves:
·      direct, explicit instruction
·      pre-teaching of concepts and/or skills
·      direct whole class instruction followed by small group and/or individual review
·      individualize instruction

Most teachers who successfully differentiate instruction are good classroom managers, are organized and purposeful, and are very much in charge of student learning and the curricular content. Their classrooms may be student-centered, but they are very much teacher-directed.  

Differentiated instruction is for every student!

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Intervention, on the other hand, is not.  For some students the level of instruction in the core curriculum is not successful in helping them achieve the minimal levels of expected competency.  Those students who, despite differentiated instruction, fall below the expected levels of accomplishment (called benchmarks) and are at some risk for academic failure are in need of intervention.  The needs of these students are often identified through the assessment process and ongoing progress monitoring.  Analysis of student data on a continuous basis allows for teachers to “catch” students in need of interventions in specific skill areas early and to provide targeted interventions to help the student be successful.   

This is key to the RtI process!

An intervention is a planned set of procedures that are aimed at teaching a specific set of skills to a student(s).  It is more than a single lesson, less than an entire curriculum.

Interventions contains these components:

·      It is planned – it is a evidence-based set of teaching procedures

·      It is sustained – implemented in a series of lessons over time

·      It is focused – intended to meet a specific set of needs for a student(s)

·      It is goal oriented – intended to produce a change in knowledge/behavior

·      It is in addition – it does not replace the core curriculum but provides for additional instructional support for the student in the area of concern

·      It is typically a set of procedures rather than a single instructional strategy 

References:

Differentiating Instruction in a Whole-Group Setting Betty Hollis, 2007

Mark Pennington. (2010, February 15). 23 Myths of Differentiated Instruction. Retrieved from http://penningtonpublishing.com/blog/reading/23-myths-of-differentiated-instruction/

Curriculum-based Evaluation: teaching and decision making (4^th ed) Howell, Hosp and Hosp

Kathy Steffens is a Special Educator with 20+ years experience.  She is available for questions regarding district RTI implementation and staff development training.  You can reach her at RightResponsetoRTI@gmail.com

Response to Intervention (RtI) - What it is and what it isn't

RtI - What it is . . .

In its simplest definition, Response to Intervention is a multi-tiered framework approach that provides for early identification and intervention for struggling students based on student data.  Through ongoing progress monitoring and universal screening, both the learning rate and the level of performance of individual students are assessed.  RtI ensures that learning is taking place within the general education classroom with appropriate instruction. When students need additional support high quality, scientifically based instructional interventions that align with standards are used to scaffold student learning and provide the additional support needed to achieve strong academic results.

While there is not one single, widely practiced RtI “model”.  Generally it is defined as a three-tiered model. 

Tier 1 – Classroom instruction that includes:

• Core classroom instruction that is differentiated and utilizes strategies and materials    that are scientifically research-based and meets the needs of 80% of all students
• Instruction that is delivered by highly qualified teachers
• Universal screening and progress monitoring of all students
• Decisions that are made based upon student data

Tier 2 – Targeted interventions that provide for:

• Supplemental instruction in area(s) of concern
• Targeted skill instruction with increased frequency, intensity, and/or duration
• Small group or individual instruction using evidence based instructional/behavioral interventions
• Frequent progress monitoring of student data

Tier 3 – Intensive interventions that provide for:

• Individualized interventions that target specific skill deficits
• Remediation of relevant skills or compensatory strategies
• Intense monitoring of student data that helps to direct the teaching process

RtI - What it isn't . . .

• another instructional program or parallel curriculum
• merely a pre-referral process to place students into Special Education
• the same school-to-school or district-to-district
• a separate or stand alone initiative
• an added resource (teacher, classroom, program) or an added instructional period alone

Resources:

The National Center for Learning Disabilities, Inc., http://www.rtinetwork.org

D Fuchs, LS Fuchs (2006). Introduction to Response to Intervention: What, Why, and How Valid Is It?. Reading Research Quarterly,

Jimerson, S. R., Burns, M. K., & VanDerHeyden, A. M. (2007). Response to Intervention at School: The Science and Practice of Assessment and Intervention. In S. R. Jimerson, M. K. Burns, & A. M. VanDerHeyden, Handbook of Response to Intervention: The Science and Practice of Assessment and Intervention (pp. 3–9). New York: Springer.

Kathy Steffens is a Special Educator with 20+ years experience.  She is available for questions regarding district RTI implementation and staff development training.  You can reach her at RightResponsetoRTI@gmail.com

6 Immediate Ways to Enhance Classroom Learning for All Students

Accommodations to Enhance Learning

Curriculum and instructional accommodations can take many forms.  Accommodations are made to change how the content is taught, made accessible and/or assessed, but do not change what the student is expected to master.  The objectives of the instruction remain intact. 

Here are six different ways to accommodate instruction for students. What the teacher selects from day to day will vary depending on individual student needs and goals and on the particular lesson content and structure that is planned. 

1.  Change the number or quantity of items that the learner is expected to learn or complete

For example, reduce the number of social studies terms a student must learn at any one time or the length of an research project or essay. Provide graphic organizers to help identify important facts or concepts that need to be learned.  Increase the number of paragraphs to include in an essay for a student who would benefit from the challenge.

2.  Adapt the time alloted and allowed for learning, task completion, or testing

Individualize a timeline for completing a task.  Consider pacing learning differently (by increasing or decreasing time allowed) for some learners. Allow for frequent breaks or multiple testing sessions.

3.  Vary the way instruction is delivered to the learner

Use different visual aids, plan more concrete examples, provide hands-on activities, place students in cooperative groups. Provide for large print, audio tapes or technology when needed. 

An added benefit is that you will learn, by using a variety of different types of delivery, which methods allow the student to succeed.  Be sure to document the level of success you achieve with different methods! 

4.  Adapt the skill level, problem type, or the rules on how the learner may approach the work

A few simple ideas:  allow the use of a calculator to figure math problems; simplify task directions;  provide more manageable (friendly) numbers for calculations; use of spelling and grammar devices; change rules to accommodate the learners needs.

5.  Increase the amount of personal assistance with a specific learner

For example: Assign peer buddies, teaching assistants, peer tutors, or cross age tutors.  Provide additional instructional support, computerize practice or opportunities to teach others in order to reinforce skills. If needed, provide for a change of room or location; headphones or study carrel.

The level of support need by a student will be helpful to problem solving teams, should the student move to more intensive interventions.

6.  Adapt how the student can respond to instruction

For example: Instead of answering questions in writing, allow for a verbal response; use a communication book for some students; allow students to show knowledge with hands on materials; vary assessments to allow students to show understanding in a variety of ways.

Evaluating the effectiveness of accommodations should be an on-going process to ensure that it is working to help the student.  This list is not exhaustive, but is a good starting point for any teacher who is considering how best to adapt instruction to meet the diverse learning needs of students in the classroom.

 

Kathy Steffens is a Special Educator with 20+ years experience.  She is available for questions regarding district RTI implementation and staff development training.  You can reach her at RightResponsetoRTI@gmail.com

The 3 Things Teachers MUST Do Before Intervention Planning

3 things teachers need to do before referring a student for intervention planning

So, a teacher has a student that is not making progress, and wants to address those issues at a problem solving team meeting.   From an administrative perspective,  teachers will consistently use best practice approaches in the classroom to address the basic learning needs of their students.   Unfortunately, this is not always the case.

What are the 3 things teachers can do to demonstrate the use of best instructional practice in the classroom? 

The Basics of Differentiated Instruction

While we cannot meet all of our students needs in all content areas at all times, key instructional strategies can be implemented by all classroom teachers.  These strategies can be defined under the heading of differentiated instruction.

Differentiation is simply tailoring instruction to help reach students with diverse academic needs and learning styles in order to ensure that they are able to master the academic content.  Here are some quick and painless ways to begin to differentiate instruction right away:

1. Vary the way content is delivered to students using a variety of modalities

·      Lectures and discussions (auditory presentation)

·      Demonstrations and media support (visual presentation)

·      Experiments and exploration (kinesthetic presentation)

·      Graphic organizers to help students understand concepts

(Move from the whole-to-part or part-to-whole)

2. Vary the materials to add interest

·      Use fiction and non fiction texts

·      Incorporate technology (video clips, apps, webinars, etc)

·      Integrate real life artifacts into lessons when possible

·      Provide an array of media articles that reflect student interests or culture around the content/concepts being taught

3. Vary assessments to address the strengths and weaknesses of students in your classroom:

·      Alter the length of time a student has to complete an assignment

·      Allow for various assessment tasks (written assignment, oral presentation, digital presentation, etc

·      Use rubrics to help empower students to identify the criteria needed to demonstrate mastery

Differentiation won't fix every learning problem - but it's a good place to start

Tomlinson (1999) points out that efforts to differentiate are most successful when they are combined with the use of a high-quality curriculum, research-based instructional strategies, well-designed activities that address the needs and interests of students, active learning, and student satisfaction with the lesson.   Differentiating instruction by itself will not automatically improve student performance but it is a great place to start!

References

Tomlinson, C. A. (1999). The differentiated classroom: Responding to the needs of all learners. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.

Willis, S., & Mann, L. (2000, Winter). Differentiating instruction: Finding manageable ways to meet individual needs. Curriculum Update. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development. Retrieved January18, 2007 from http://www.ascd.org/ed_topics/cu2000win_willis.html

Kathy Steffens is a Special Educator with 20+ years experience.  She is available for questions regarding district RTI implementation and staff development training.  You can reach her at RightResponsetoRTI@gmail.com